All posts by Lynn Waterhouse

About Lynn Waterhouse

Director Emeritus, Child Behavior Study Professor, Graduate Global Programs The College of New Jersey PhD, The University of Pennsylvania Rethinking Autism: Variation and Complexity (Academic Press, 2013)

Lynn Waterhouse recent autism publications

Lynn Waterhouse. Autism: Two symptoms among many. OA Autism, 2(2), 2014,13.

Lynn Waterhouse. Rethinking Autism Variation and Complexity. New York, NY: Academic Press, 2013.

Lynn Waterhouse. Autism endophenotypes are not unified by gene variants or chromosome number variants. In Fein, D. A. (Ed.), The Neuropsychology of Autism. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2011.

Lynn Waterhouse. Autism is a portmanteau syndrome. Neuropsychology Review, 19, 2009, 275-276.

Lynn Waterhouse. Autism overflows: Increasing prevalence and proliferating theories. Neuropsychology Review, 18, 2008, 273-286.

3 POSSIBLE TREATMENTS FOR FRAGILE X SYNDROME AUTISM SYMPTOMS

Three research groups– Berry-Kravis et al. (2012),   Jung et al. (2012),and Silverman et al. (2012)—have recently reported testing treatments for fragile X syndrome autism symptoms of social avoidance and anxiety.

Treatments could be of value because between 5% to 20% of individuals with autism symptoms has been found to have fragile X syndrome. Fragile X syndrome occurs in only 1 in 3000 individuals.

WHAT IS FRAGILE X SYNDROME?

Humans have about 22,000 genes. Genes are made of DNA and occur in 23 pairs of chromosomes. The 23rd pair is the sex chromosome pair: XX in females and XY in males.

DNA has 4 bases: A, adenine, which pairs with T, thymine; and C, cytosine, which pairs with G, guanine. The DNA genetic code is stored in a sequence of three bases called base triplets. The triplets direct a stage in the creation of proteins.

Fragile X syndrome results from an abnormally excessive 200 or more repeats of cytosine-guanine-guanine (CGG) triplets in the fragile X mental retardation 1 (FMR1) gene on the X chromosome. A typical/normal range of repeats is less than 50.

HOW DOES THE FRAGILE X SYNDROME CAUSE AUTISM SYMPTOMS? 

Excessive repeats lead to a lack of fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP) in the brain. Because the FMR1 protein inhibits protein synthesis, the lack of FMRP results in too much protein synthesis, causing an abnormal increase in dendritic spines on neurons in the brain.

The reduced FMRP of fragile X syndrome is also linked to abnormal regulation of two core neurotransmitters in the brain: glutamate and GABA. Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter. Normal glutamate function and adequate dendritic spine plasticity are crucial for learning and memory. Normal GABA function is crucial for regulating anxiety and damping down social avoidance.

Thus the abnormal structure and function of neuron dendrites, and the dysregulated operation of glutamate and GABA are thought to cause the symptoms of fragile X syndrome: intellectual disability, anxiety, seizures, and social interaction impairment.

TREATMENT 1: INCREASING INHIBITORY GABA B RECEPTOR FUNCTIONING

Berry-Kravis et al. (2012) compared the effects of placebo pills to a drug called STX209 that increased the functioning of GABA B receptors. In 63 individuals with Fragile X syndrome the drug STX209 did reduce social avoidance but did not reduce irritability or aggression.

The researchers believe the drug increased the balance between excitatory (glutamate) and inhibitory (GABA) neurotransmission and could help ameliorate social avoidance in individuals with fragile X syndrome and in individuals with autism symptoms without fragile X syndrome.

TREATMENT 2: REDUCING ABNORMAL EXCITATORY RECEPTOR SIGNALING

Silverman et al. (2012) treated a mouse model of fragile X syndrome with a drug that could reduce the abnormally increased signaling of a specific receptor for the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate. The name of the receptor is the metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 or mGluR5.

The researchers found that when the fragile X syndrome mice were treated with the drug the mice showed increased normal social sniffing of other mice, and also showed a reduction in their abnormally excessive self-grooming.

TREATMENT 3: INCREASING NEUROMODULATORY ENDOCANNABINOID

Jung et al. (2012) explored a mouse model of fragile X syndrome, and investigated the context of the abnormally increased signaling of the metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 (mGluR5) treated in the Silverman et al. (2012) study.

Jung et al. (2012) found that the abnormal mGluR5 signaling was associated with impaired endocannabinoid-dependent long-term depression. LTP, long-term potentiation is increased transmission of activation from one neuron to the next, and LTD, long-term depression, is decreased transmission of activation from one neuron to the next. Both LTP and LTD are crucial for learning, memory and consequently for establishing flexible behaviors.

A signalosome is a set of proteins that together regulate protein degradation.

The active element of the cannabis sativa or marijuana plant is tetrahydrocannabinol or THC. THC binds to the existing neuron receptors for the cannabinoids that circulate in the brain naturally. Two important endocannabinoids that occur as neuromodulators in our brains are anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol or 2-AG. They function in the regulation of appetite, pain-sensation, mood, and memory.

Jung et al. (2012) did not explicitly propose that individuals with fragile X syndrome or autism would become more social if they were treated with marijuana or its active ingredient, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). However, Jung et al. (2012) reported evidence suggesting the fragile X mental retardation protein regulates endocannabinoid 2-AG signaling at excitatory synapses that, in turn, causes long-term depression—a modulation of an excitatory synapse. The researchers demonstrated that the reduced FMR protein in the brains of fragile X mice caused a reduction in long-term depression dependent on 2-AG at excitatory synapses.

Jung et al. did suggest that therapy that could normalize the 2-AG receptor system might address fragile X and autism symptoms. The researchers concluded that their findings identified “the endocannabinoid signalosome as a molecular substrate for fragile X syndrome, which might be targeted by therapy.”

CAUTIONS REGARDING ALL THREE POTENTIAL TREATMENTS

First, the treatments proposed would each affect a wide range of synapses, not just brain circuits hypothesized to give rise to autism social communication impairments.

Second, it is not yet completely clear how many individuals diagnosed with autism (5-20%) do have fragile X syndrome, and it is not clear that individuals diagnosed with autism who do not have fragile X syndrome would experience behavioral improvement when given a drug that targeted fragile X brain dysfunction.

Third, all three studies reveal the complexity of downstream processes that are impaired by the absence of sufficient FMR1 protein. So many neuromolecular processes are occurring, addressing one component of a complex process by drug administration may have only short-term or minimal effectiveness.

 

AUTISM RISK INCREASES WITH OLDER FATHERS

NEW FINDING: OLDER DADS HAVE MORE GENETIC MUTATIONS THAN OLDER MOMS

As reported by Carey in the New York Times, researchers Kong et al. (2012) examined the genomes of 219 individuals in 78 family groups, including children, parents, and, in some cases siblings and grandparents. 44 individuals were diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder, and 21 were diagnosed with schizophrenia.

Although Kong et al. (2012) found an increase in “de novo” (new) genetic mutations with increased age of the mother and father, they indicated increased mutations were “mostly, maybe entirely, on the paternally inherited chromosome” (p. 472).

Kong et al. (2012) suggested increased father’s age could be contributing to the increase in autism prevalence.

RELATED FINDINGS: OLDER DADS AND MOMS ARE LINKED TO GREATER AUTISM RISK

Hultman et al. (2011) reported that fathers over 55 years old had a 4.4 times increased risk of having a child with autism.

Reichenberg et al. (2006) reviewed Israeli records for 318,506 17-year-olds: they found no link between age of mothers and autism risk, but found fathers over 40 were 5.75 times more likely to have children with autism than fathers who were 30 or younger.

Lauritsen, Pedersen, and Mortensen (2005) reviewed records for 818 Danish children with autism and found no effect of mothers’ age, but found fathers 35 years or older had 1.4 times the risk of having children with autism than 25-29 year old fathers.

Many researchers have reported that both increased age of the mother and increased age of the father carried increased risk for autism (Ben Itzchak et al., 2011; Croen et al., 2007; Durkin et al., 2008; King et al., 2009; Larsson et al., 2005; Parner et al., 2012; Shelton, Tancredi, & Hertz-Picciotto, 2010).

QUESTION 1: WHAT IS A DE NOVO MUTATION? A “de novo” mutation is new in an individual.

For most genes, we carry two versions or alleles, one from our mother, one from our father.

A mutation is a change in genetic sequence. Mutations can occur in an allele of any gene.

Mutations are caused primarily by one of four things:

mistakes in DNA replication—these increase as we age;

ionizing radiation penetrating earth’s atmosphere and passing through our bodies—these effects accumulate as we age;

chemical exposure—effects may accumulate as we age; and,

viruses.

QUESTION 2: IS IT LIKELY THAT DENOVO GENE MUTATIONS OF OLDER FATHERS ARE A FACTOR IN THE INCREASED PREVALENCE OF AUTISM?   

NOT LIKELY.

First, the two major types of genetic causes of autism diagnoses are not de novo gene mutations, but are:

(a)    single gene mutation disorders such as Rett syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, and tuberous sclerosis; and,

(b)    multiple gene variants of many different types occurring together in one individual—this is called polygenic inheritance. At this time, between 400 and 1,000 existing—not de novo—gene variants have been linked to autism diagnoses.

Second, the genetic research findings of Neal et al. (2012), O’Roak et al. (2012) and Sanders et al. (2012) together with those of Kong et al. (2012) have found only 70 genes with a de novo genetic variant. (Kong et al. (2012) added evidence for mutations in two additional genes, CUL3 and EPHB2, linked to autism.)

Therefore, given the evidence that multiple gene variants of different types occurring together are one cause for autism diagnoses, there are likely to be only a handful of de novo mutations in older fathers that contribute to autism diagnoses.

THE KONG et al. (2012) FINDINGS ILLUSTRATE VARIATION AND COMPLEXITY IN AUTISM

The largest twin study of autism conducted to date (Hallmayer et al., 2011) found that, unlike earlier autism heritability studies, less than 40% of the variation between twins was attributable to genetic risk factors. If future twin studies support these findings then it will be established that more autism variance is explained by environmental risk factors than genetic risk factors.

The de novo genetic mutations older fathers may pass on to their children are definable as environmental risk factors and as genetic risk factors. Because the de novo mutation alters a gene sequence, the mutation’s effects are genetic effects. However, the environment caused the de novo mutation in the father.

Ratio of causes projected from the Hallmayer et al. autism twin study heritability findings.